Existing courage measures do not adequately assess person factors (e.g., self-efficacy) that facilitate courageous behaviors. The Courage Efficacy Scale (CES) was developed based on Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, framing courage as a function of antecedent person factors (i.e., self-efficacy, perseverance, and resilience).

Marelich, W. D., Hernandez, B., & Alvarez, S. L. (2026). Courage as a social-cognitive process: Development of a courage efficacy scale. Acta Psychologica, 270, Article 107665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107665

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